Bioengineered brain-computer interfaces: an introductory overview of technologies, clinical applications
and ethical-legal challenges

A.U. Zammoev, R.N. Abutalipov

---

Abstract: Bioengineered brain-computer interfaces (BBCIs) constitute a rapidly evolving interdisciplinary field at the intersection of neuroscience, bioengineering, materials science, and artificial intelligence. This introductory overview provides a concise synthesis of the current state of research across key domains: invasive, minimally invasive, and non-invasive platforms; emerging technologies (biohybrid interfaces, nanowire probes, in vitro neuromuscular models); clinical applications in neurorehabilitation and communication; and ethical-legal challenges – from neuroprivacy to cognitive rights. Special attention is given to regional development strategies, including the human-centered approach of the Russian scientific community. The review does not claim to offer a comprehensive analysis but aims to delineate conceptual boundaries and establish an informational foundation for forthcoming hematic publications focused on in-depth comparative assessments, regulatory modeling, and strategic priorities for clinical translation of BBCIs.

Keywords: bioengineered brain-computer interfaces (BBCIs), invasive interfaces, neurorehabilitation, biohybrid interfaces, ethical and legal aspects, cognitive rights

For citation. Zammoev A.U., Abutalipov R.N. Bioengineered brain-computer interfaces: an introductory overview of technologies, clinical applications and ethical-legal challenges. News of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. 2025. Vol. 27. No. 5. Pp. 125–142. DOI: 10.35330/1991-6639-2025-27-5-125-142

References

1. Musk E., Neuralink. An integrated brain-machine interface platform with thousands of channels. Journal of medical Internet research. 2019. Vol. 21. No. 10. P. e16194. DOI: 10.2196/16194
2. Goding J.A., Gilmour A., Ulises Alejandro Aregueta Robles, Hasan E. Living bioelectronics: strategies for developing an effective long‐term implant with functional neural connections. Advanced Functional Materials. 2018. Vol. 28. No. 12. P. 1702969.
3. Filipova I.A. Neurotechnologies: development, practical application, and legal regulation. Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Law. 2021. Vol. 12. No. 3. Pp. 502–521. DOI:
   10.21638/spbu14.2021.302. EDN: GVISZL. (In Russian)
4. Abutalipov R.N., Zammoev A.U., Nagoev Z.V. Bionanorobotics: conceptualization, perspective and research problems. News of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. No. 6(74). Pp. 11–17. EDN: XRUYRN. (In Russian)
5. Abutalipov R.N., Zammoev A.U., Zagazhezheva O.Z. Interreprezentative network (IRN) and representativeness VR visualization of nanostructures and processes in nano-medium. News of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. 2016. No. 4(72). Pp. 5–9. EDN: WKDXXD. (In Russian)
6. Abutalipov R.N., Zammoev A.U., Anchekov M.I. Perspectives of application of micro and nanosystem equipment in biology and medical diagnostics. Problems and tasks of LoC(Laboratories on the Chip) // News of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. 2016. No. 6(74). Pp. 5–10. EDN: XRUYRD. (In Russian)
7. Abutalipov R.N., Zammoev A.U. Information service for decision-making support system in the process of designing devices of bionanorobotics. News of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. 2017. No. 6-2(80). Pp. 9–12. EDN: YWNDNP. (In Russian)
8. Zammoev A.U., Abutalipov R.N. Search, research and development of bionanorobotics technologies for the sustainable development of mountain territories in the new techno-economic paradigm. Sustainable Development of Mountainous Regions. 2018. Vol. 10. No. 3(37). Pp. 447–457. DOI: 10.21177/1998-4502-2018-3-447-457. EDN: YOHKLJ. (In Russian)
9. Zammoev A.U., Abutalipov R.N. Catalytic self-propelled nanomotors as the basis of the element base for the design of nanomechatronic devices and systems for ionanomachines in bionanorobotics. News of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. 2018. No. 6-2(86). Pp. 149–156. EDN: YZKELR. (In Russian)
10. Abutalipov R.N., Zammoev A.U. About the possible prospects of the application of magnetotactic bacteria in bionanorobotics. Advanced Systems and Control Problems: Proceedings of the XIV All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference and X Youth School-Seminar “Information Control and Processing in Technical Systems”; Southern Federal University. Rostov-on-Don; Taganrog: Southern Federal University Publishing House, 2019. Pp. 200–205. ISBN: 978-5-9275-3146-2. (In Russian)
11. Zammoev A.U., Abutalipov R.N. Search for methods and study of the possibilities of using modern technologies of virtual prototyping and design of bioengineering systems in the design of bionanodevices and systems of bionanorobotics. News of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. 2020. No. 6(98). Pp. 34–42. DOI: 10.35330/1991-6639-2020-6-98-34-42. EDN: JNLSCR. (In Russian)
12. Zammoev A.U., Abutalipov R.N. On the possibilities and necessity of applying bioengineering devices and systems of bionanorobotics and biorobotics to address practical medicine challenges. Fundamental Science for Practical Medicine. Additive Technologies, Advanced Materials and Physical Methods in Medicine. Current Issues: Proceedings of the II International Scientific and Practical Conference, Nalchik, September 15–18, 2021. Nalchik: Print Tsentr, 2021. Pp. 17–18. EDN: OVYATY. (In Russian)
13. Zammoev A.U., Abutalipov R.N. Soft polymer mechatronic structures for implementing a bio-integrated approach in soft robotics and biorobotics. Advanced Systems and Control Problems: Proceedings of the XVII All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference and XIII Youth School-Seminar, Dombai, April 4–8, 2022. Taganrog: M.R. Maruk Publishing House, Pp. 302–313. EDN: RULOPE. (In Russian)
14. Abutalipov R.N., Zammoev A.U., Chernyshev G.V. Search for theoretical approaches to the study of cyber-physical systems and environments with intelligent control. News of the
    Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of RAS. 2024. Vol. 26. No. 6. Pp. 26–44. DOI: 10.35330/1991-6639-2024-26-6-26-44. EDN: CCVAZY. (In Russian)
15. Hochberg L.R., Serruya M., Friehs G.M., Mukand J.A. Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia. Nature. 2006. Vol. 442. No. 7099. Pp. 164–171.
    DOI: 10.1038/nature04970
16. Bjånes D.A. et al. Quantifying physical degradation alongside recording and stimulation performance of 980 intracortical microelectrodes chronically implanted in three humans for 956–2246 days // medRxiv. 2024.
17. Sahasrabuddhe K., Khan A.A., Singh A.P. et al. The Argo: a high channel count recording system for neural recording in vivo. Journal of neural engineering. 2021. Vol. 18. No. 1. P. 015002. DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/abd0ce
18. Mitchell P., Lee S.C.M., Yoo P.E. et al. Assessment of safety of a fully implanted endovascular brain-computer interface for severe paralysis in 4 patients: the stent rode with thought-controlled digital switch (SWITCH) study. JAMA neurology. 2023. Vol. 80. No. 3. Pp. 270–278. DOI: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.4847
19. Badcock N.A. et al. Validation of the Emotiv EPOC EEG system for research quality auditory event-related potentials in children. PeerJ. 2015. Vol. 3. P. e907.
20. Ban H.Y. et al. Kernel Flow: a high channel count scalable time-domain functional nearinfrared spectroscopy system. Journal of biomedical optics. 2022. Vol. 27. No. 7. P. 074710.
21. Mokiienko O.A., Lyukmanov R.Kh., Bobrov P.D. et al. Neurocomputer interfaces based on near-infrared spectroscopy and electroencephalography in post-stroke rehabilitation: a
    comparative study. Neurology, Neuropsychiatry, Psychosomatics. 2024. Vol. 16. No. 5. Pp. 17–23. DOI: 10.14412/2074-2711-2024-5-17-23. (In Russian)
22. Pratt E.J. et al. Kernel Flux: a whole-head 432-magnetometer optically-pumped magnetoencephalography (OP-MEG) system for brain activity imaging during natural human experiences. Optical and Quantum Sensing and Precision Metrology. SPIE, 2021. Vol. 11700. Pp. 162–179.
23. Thwe Y., Maneetham D., Crisnapati P.N. Review of applications in wheelchair control using Emotiv insight and Emotiv Epoc headsets. 2024 6th international conference on cybernetics and intelligent system (ICORIS). IEEE, 2024. Pp. 1–6.
24. Jiang Y., Huang Q., Li Y. Application strategies of brain-computer interface in education from the perspective of innovation diffusion theory. Brain-Apparatus Communication: A Journal of Bacomics. 2024. Vol. 3. No. 1. P. 2376368.
25. Lupu R.G. et al. BCI and FES based therapy for stroke rehabilitation using VR facilities. Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing. 2018. Vol. 2018. No. 1. P. 4798359.
26. Zhang A. et al. Nanowire probes could drive high-resolution brain-machine interfaces. Nano Today. 2020. Vol. 31. P. 100821.
27. Leng Y. et al. Advances in in vitro models of neuromuscular junction: focusing on organ‐on‐a‐chip, organoids, and biohybrid robotics. Advanced Materials. 2023. Vol. 35. No. 41. P. 2211059.
28. Frank J.A., Antonini M.J., Anikeeva P. Next-generation interfaces for studying neural function. Nature biotechnology. 2019. Vol. 37. No. 9. Pp. 1013–1023.
29. Willett F.R. et al. A high-performance speech neuroprosthesis. Nature. 2023. Vol. 620. No. 7976. Pp. 1031–1036.
30. Willsey M.S. et al. A high-performance brain–computer interface for finger decoding and quadcopter game control in an individual with paralysis. Nature Medicine. 2025. Vol. 31. No. 1. Pp. 96–104.
31. Cervera M. A. et al. Brain‐computer interfaces for post‐stroke motor rehabilitation: a meta‐analysis. Annals of clinical and translational neurology. 2018. Vol. 5. No. 5. Pp. 651–663.
32. Ramirez J.G. et al. Intracortical recordings reveal the neuronal selectivity for bodies and body parts in the human visual cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2024. Vol. 121. No. 51. P. e2408871121.
33. Patent No. 2736710 C1 Russian Federation, IPC A61B 5/0476, A61B 5/16. System and method for determining fatigue or alertness state based on eeg biometric signal: Application
    No. 2020107543; filed February 19, 2020; published November 19, 2020 / A.N. Makarov, A.A. Makarov, S.M. Goryushko [et al.]; applicant: Limited Liability Company “Laboratoriya
    Znaniy” (Knowledge Lab LLC). EDN: LFGGRP. (In Russian)
34. Patent No. 2736711 C1 Russian Federation, IPC A61B 5/0476, A61B 5/16. System and method for determining stress state based on EEG biometric signal: Application No. 2020107542; filed February 19, 2020; published November 19, 2020 / A.N. Makarov, A.A. Makarov, S.M. Goryushko et al.; applicant: LLC “Laboratoriya Znaniy” (Knowledge Lab LLC). EDN: WBOYEF. (In Russian)
35. Patent No. 2813807 C1 Russian Federation, IPC A61H 1/00, A61N 1/36, A61H 39/00. Method for multimodal correction of motor and cognitive impairments in patients after ischemic stroke: Application No. 2023105046; filed March 6, 2023; published February 19, 2024 / E.V. Kostenko, L.V. Petrova, I.V. Pogonchenkova et al.; applicant: Moscow City State Autonomous Healthcare Institution “Moscow Research and Practical Center for Medical Rehabilitation, Restorative and Sports Medicine of the Moscow Department of Healthcare”. (In Russian)
36. Patent No. 2844844 C1 Russian Federation, IPC A61H 1/00, A61N 1/00. Method for restoring upper limb movements after ischemic stroke using combined electromyostimulation and bimanual robotic mechanotherapy with brain–computer interface technology: filed July 4, 2024; published August 7, 2025 / E.V. Kostenko, I.V. Pogonchenkova, L.V. Petrova et al.; applicant: State Autonomous Healthcare Institution of the City of Moscow “S.I. Spasokukotsky Moscow Scientific and Practical Center for Medical Rehabilitation, Restorative and Sports Medicine of the Moscow Department of Healthcare.” (In Russian)
37. Owen A.M., Coleman M.R. Detecting awareness in the vegetative state. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2008. Vol. 1129. No. 1. Pp. 130–138. DOI: 0.1196/annals.1417.018
38. Monti M.M., Vanhaudenhuyse A., Coleman M.R. et al. Willful modulation of brain activity in disorders of consciousness. New England journal of medicine. 2010. Vol. 362. No. 7. Pp. 579–589. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa0905370
39. Yuste R., Goering S., Arcas B.A.Y. et al. Four ethical priorities for neurotechnologies and AI. Nature. 2017. Vol. 551. No. 7679. Pp. 159–163. DOI: 10.1038/551159a
40. Ienca M., Andorno R. Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology. Life sciences, society and policy. 2017. Vol. 13. No. 1. P. 5. DOI: 10.1186/s40504-017-0050-1
41. Oxley T.J., Deo D.R., Cernera S. et al. The ‘Brussels 4’: essential requirements for implantable brain–computer interface user autonomy. Journal of Neural Engineering. 2025. Vol. 22. No. 1. P. 013002. DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ada0e6
42. Oxley T.J., Opie N.L., John S.E. et al. Minimally invasive endovascular stent-electrode array for high-fidelity, chronic recordings of cortical neural activity. Nature Biotechnology. 2016. Vol. 34. No. 3. Pp. 320–327. DOI: 10.1038/nbt.3428
43. Oxley T.J. A 10-year journey towards clinical translation of an implantable endovascular BCI. J Neural Eng. 2025. Vol. 22. P. 013001. DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ad9633
44. Ienca M., Valle G., Raspopovic S. Clinical trials for implantable neural prostheses: understanding the ethical and technical requirements. The Lancet Digital Health. 2025. Vol. 7. No. 3. P. e216-e224. DOI: 10.1016/S2589-7500(24)00222-X
45. Lavazza A., Balconi M., Marcello Ienca, Minerva F. Neuralink’s brain-computer interfaces: medical innovations and ethical challenges. Frontiers in Human Dynamics. 2025. Vol. 7. P. 1553905. DOI: 10.3389/fhumd.2025.1553905
46. Ligthart S., Marcello Ienca, Meynen G. et al. Minding rights: Mapping ethical and legal foundations of ‘neurorights’. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. 2023. Vol. 32. No. 4. Pp. 461–481. DOI: 10.1017/S0963180123000245
47. Alkhouri K.I. Neuralink’s Brain-computer interfaces and the reshaping of religiouspsychological experience. Conatus-Journal of Philosophy. 2025. Vol. 10. No. 1. Pp. 9–56. DOI: 10.12681/cjp.38734
48. Chen X., Wang F., Kooijmans R. et al. Chronic stability of a neuroprosthesis comprising multiple adjacent Utah arrays in monkeys. Journal of Neural Engineering. 2023. Vol. 20. No. 3. P. 036039. DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ace07e
49. Rapoport B.I., Kedzierski J.T., Sarpeshkar R.A glucose fuel cell for implantable brain–machine interfaces. PloS one. 2012. Vol. 7. No. 6. P. e38436. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038436
50. Karpowicz B.M., Ali Ya.H., Wimalasena L.N. et al. Stabilizing brain-computer interfaces hrough alignment of latent dynamics. Nature Communications. 2025. Vol. 16. No. 1. P. 4662. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-59652-y
51. Pun T.K., Khoshnevis M., Hosman T. et al. Measuring instability in chronic human intracortical neural recordings towards stable, long-term brain-computer interfaces. Communications Biology. 2024. Vol. 7. No. 1. P. 1363. DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06784-4
52. DARPA. Next-generation nonsurgical neurotechnology (n3) program: broad agency announcement (baa) HR001118S0067. Arlington, VA: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, 2018. 42 p.
53. Karpov O.E., Andrikov D.A., Maksimenko V.A., Khramov A.E. Transparent artificial intelligence for medicine. Medical Doctor and IT. 2022. No. 2. Pp. 4–11. DOI: 10.25881/18110193_2022_2_4. EDN: DTCAWX. (In Russian)
54. Ageev A.I., Loginov E.L., Shkuta A.A. Neurocontrol: Convergent integration of the human brain and artificial intelligence. Economic Strategies. 2020. Vol. 22. No. 6(172). Pp. 46–57. DOI: 10.33917/es-6.172.2020.46-57. EDN: XGPRFE. (In Russian)

Information about the authors

Aslan U. Zammoev, Candidate of Technical Sciences, Head of the Scientific-Innovation Center “Biomedical Engineering” of Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences;
2 Balkarov street, Nalchik, 360010, Russia;
zammoev@mail.ru, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7966-3557, SPIN-code: 6317-3115
Renat N. Abutalipov, Candidate of Technical Sciences, Senior Researcher of the laboratory “Bionanorobotics and Neuroengineering” of the Scientific-Innovation Center “Biomedical engineering” of Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences;
2 Balkarov street, Nalchik, 360010, Russia;
bnt_nat_2016@mail.ru, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0187-563X, SPIN-code: 6219-9432